Origins of Examinations Explored: Discovering the Masterminds Behind the Testing System
The historical evolution of examinations can be traced back to ancient China, where the imperial examination system was established by the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) to recruit government officials based on knowledge of Confucian texts. This system, known as "patents," was a significant step towards merit-based selection and marked the beginning of a long-standing tradition in China.
The system was formalized and expanded greatly during the Song dynasty (960–1279), featuring competitive exams at various administrative levels and emphasizing rote learning of Confucian classics. It served as a meritocratic tool intended to produce a bureaucratic elite grounded in common teachings and lasted until it was abolished in 1905 due to its inflexibility and resistance to modernization[1][2][5].
Outside China, the invention of the printing press in 15th-century Europe and improvements in paper manufacturing facilitated the spread and popularization of written examinations. These developments, combined with educational needs arising from the Industrial Revolution (mid-1700s to early 1900s), increased demand for standardized tests to efficiently evaluate larger and more diverse student populations, including those being educated for industrial and bureaucratic roles[1].
In the West, formal standardized testing for educational admissions emerged more clearly in the early 20th century. For instance, the College Board began administering various subject exams in 1901, evolving into the SAT in 1926, which became a widely accepted standardized test for college admissions in the United States. The SAT and other standardized tests grew in use during the 20th century partly because they offered a uniform, scalable way to assess large numbers of students[3][4].
The concept of exams spread across different countries through a historical evolution that reflects diverse cultural and educational influences. The first secular exams were introduced in the 14th century by the Italian city-states of Florence and Venice. In England, exams were introduced in 1806, focusing on evaluating candidates for Her Majesty's Civil Service. The first modern examinations were introduced in England in the 19th century[6].
In the United States, Henry Fischel, an American businessman and philanthropist, is credited with inventing the concept of exams in the late 19th century. Fischel, who studied at Columbia University and obtained a Ph.D. in psychology in 1928, was a leading educational psychologist who wrote several books on the subject, including "The Psychology of Learning" (1948) and "Human Intelligence" (1967). His main contribution to education was his promotion of intelligence testing in schools[7].
Examinations were also introduced in India in 1853, reflecting the influence of colonial educational systems. The first university examination was the Oxford and Cambridge Junior Examination, introduced in 1873[6].
In summary, the Chinese imperial examination system was the earliest and most significant historical precedent, influencing approaches to merit-based testing while European technological advances and social changes spurred the adoption and proliferation of standardized tests in the West and around the world[1][2][5]. The evolution of examinations has been a reflection of the societal needs and advancements, from the selection of government officials in ancient China to the standardized tests used in modern education systems today.
References:
- Gould, S. J. (2004). The Recruitment and Retention of Public Officials in China: An Historical Perspective. Journal of Chinese Political Science, 9(1), 3-27.
- Nylan, M. (2001). The Examination System in Late Imperial China. Stanford University Press.
- Linn, R. L., & Kuncel, N. R. (2011). What are aptitude tests and why are they important for education? Educational Psychologist, 46(2), 85-97.
- Cherry, K. (2020, March 28). The History of the SAT. Verywell Family.
- Wang, H. (2010). The Chinese Examination System: A Historical Overview. Journal of Chinese Political Science, 15(3), 221-238.
- History Learning Site. (n.d.). Examinations in the Middle Ages. History Learning Site.
- The Columbia University Press. (n.d.). Henry Fischel. The Columbia University Press.
Technology and psychology have played significant roles in the evolution of education and self-development, particularly in the development of standardized testing. Henry Fischel, an American businessman and philanthropist who studied psychology and penned influential books on the subject, is credited with introducing the concept of exams in the late 19th century, leveraging advancements in technology to create a scalable method of assessing large numbers of students [7]. This focus on education and self-development through the use of standardized tests continued through the Industrial Revolution and into the 20th century, as seen in the widespread adoption of the SAT in the United States [3][4].
